Inversion

Inversion is an independent SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate (predicative) precedes the subject; or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair.

Inverted word-order, or inversion, is one of the forms of what are known as emphatic constructions. It consists in placing a part of the sentence into an unusual initial position for the purpose of emphasis.

e.g. My account you can trust (J.Barnes).

Stylistic inversion is such a change of word-order which gives logical stress or emotional colouring to the language units placed in an unusual syntactic position. Stylistic inversion deals with the rearrangement of the normative word order.

Questions may also be rearranged: "Your mother is at home?" asks one of the characters of J. Baldwin's novel. The inverted question presupposes the answer with more certainty than the normative one. It is the assuredness of the speaker of the positive answer that constitutes additional information which is brought into the question by the inverted word order.

Interrogative constructions with the direct word order may be viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversion: direct w/o —» grammatical inversion —» direct w/o.

Stylistic inversion is typical of the predicate, predicative and all the secondary parts of the sentence:

In came Jack, (predicate) Insolent Connor's conduct was. (predicative) Little chances Benny had. (direct object)

To her family Martha gives all her time, (indirect object).

A horrible death Douglas died, (cognate object)

This is a letter congratulatory, (attribute)

To the disco Hilda went, (adverbial modifier)

The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and English poetry.

1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies

e.g. With fingers weary and worn.

3. The predicate is placed before the subject.

e.g. A good generous prayer it was.

4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

E.g. My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.

5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject.

e.g. In went Mr. Pickwick

Correspondingly, we differentiate between partial and a complete inversion. Various types of stylistic inversion (change of word-order) are aimed at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the sentence.

The stylistic device of inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion in Modern English should not be regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English. It is only the practical realization of what is potential in the language itself.

Repetition

Repetition is considered to be among the most frequently used SDs. Depending on the place which the repeated part takes in a sentence, one can distinguish between the following types of repetition: anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis, framing, chain repetition, tautology, ordinary repetition, morphological repetition.

Anaphora is a syntactical SD, a figure of speech based on the principle of a deliberate repetition of the first part of a sentence, clause, phrase, utterance in order to achieve an artistic effect.

Anaphora, possibly the oldest literary device, has its roots in Biblical Psalms used to emphasize certain words or phrases. Gradually, Elizabethan and Romantic writers brought this device into practice.

It is common for us to use anaphora in our everyday speech, to lay emphasis on the idea we want to convey, or for self affirmation. The following are anaphora examples:

· “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better.”

· “My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration.”

· “Everything looked dark and bleak, everything looked gloomy, and everything was under a blanket of mist.”

Function of Anaphora

Apart from the function of giving prominence to certain ideas, the use of anaphora in literature adds rhythm, thus making it more pleasurable to read, and easier to remember. As a literary device, anaphora serves the purpose of giving artistic effect to passages of prose and poetry.

As a rhetorical device, anaphora is used to appeal to the emotions of the audience, in order to persuade, inspire, motivate, and encourage them.

The main function in case of anaphora is to concentrate on the non-repeated elements, which through their novelty become foregrounded.

Epiphora - also known as “epistrophe,” is a stylistic device in which a word or a phrase is repeated at the end of successive clauses, sentences or utterancs.

Examples of epiphora are not only found in literary pieces, but debates and persuasive writings are also rich with epiphora examples.

“I am an American, he is an American, and everybody here is an American,”

If you had known the virtue of the ring,

Or half her worthiness that gave the ring,

Or your own honor to contain the ring,

You would not then have parted with the ring.” (Shakespear)

Function of Epiphora

Epiphora, or epistrophe, is a literary device that serves the function of furnishing an artistic effect to passages, in both poetry and prose. It lays emphasis on a particular idea, as well as giving a unique rhythm to the text, which consequently becomes a pleasurable experience for the readers. That is the reason that it is easily understood and memorized, and easier to comprehend. As a rhetorical or stylistic device, epiphora is brought into action to appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to persuade them.

Anadiplosis/Catch repetition

The term anadiplosis is a Greek word, which means “to reduplicate.” It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause.

“This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”

Anadiplosis and Chiasmus

It is important to note that anadiplosis is part of another figure of speech, chiasmus. However, every anadiplosis does not necessarily reverse its structure like it is done in chiasmus. For instance, “Forget what you want to remember, and remember what you want to forget” is an example of chiasmus (as it involves a reversal of structure in the second clause) and anadiplosis, as the word “remember” marks the end of one clause and the start of the subsequent clause.

Anadiplosis does not always employ a reversal of structure as in the sentence “The land of my fathers, and my fathers can have it.” It is an example of anadiplosis involving a typical repetition of the word “my fathers” but, unlike chiasmus, the structure of the final clause is not reversed.

Writers employ anadiplosis in their literary texts to produce special stylistic effects, such as decorating texts by means of its typical repetitive pattern, and laying emphasis on an important point. Let us have a look at a few examples of this stylistic device from literature.

Untitled (By Francis Bacon)

“He retained his virtues amidst all his – misfortunes – misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent.”

Here, Bacon has used the word “misfortunes” twice, to bring home to his readers the main idea he is discussing, which is that misfortune is always unpredictable.

The Isles of Greece (By Lord Byron)

“The mountains look on Marathon – And Marathon looks on the sea …”

This is a good use of anadiplosis by Lord Byron. Here, he has stressed the word “Marathon,” and repeated it to make it significant in the poem.

Function of Anadiplosis

It repeats a word in quick succession, in successive clauses, in order to add emphasis to the main idea. This works because readers tend to focus on the repetition of words, and thereby on the idea emphasized by them. Anadiplosis also serves to decorate a piece of writing or a speech.

Framing – is a syntactical SD, a figure of speech based on the principle of repetition of the beginning and the end of a clause , sentence, utterance. Thus, the effects of a frame appears. The information presented between the non-repeated fragment performs explanatory function.

Obviously – that is a streptococcal infection – obviously.

So, when the word is repeated for the second time, it gives the clearer idea of a statement.

Morphological repetition – is the repetition of the same morpheme in words in close succession performing similar syntactical function.

They talked, danced, prayed, cried, hoped.

It was unnatural, uncompromising, unbelievable, unforgettable experience.

The main function is to add emphasis to the message and lend the text some more dynamism through rhythmic and logical organization.

Epizeuxis

Epizeuxis is derived from the Greek word epizeugnumi, which means “fastening together.” It is defined as a rhetorical device in which the words or phrases are repeated in quick succession, one after another, for emphasis. It is also called “diacope.”

Epizeuxis is the repetition of words in succession within a same sentence, such as “The horror, the horror,” in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad.

King Lear (By William Shakespeare)

“And my poor fool is hanged! No, no, no life!

Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life,
And thou no breath at all? Thou’lt come no more,
Never, never, never, never!”

Shakespeare has beautifully used this device in this paragraph. In the first line, he has emphasized “no,” repeating it three times. Similarly, he has repeated “never” four times in quick succession without using any other word.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By Samuel Coleridge)

“Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide, wide sea.”

Here, the repetition of words “alone,” “all,” and “wide” is creating a rhythmic effect. These words draw the attention of the readers toward the supernatural incident, which has killed crew members of the ship, and has left the mariner all alone.

Function of Epizeuxis

The major function of epizeuxis is to create an appeal to the emotions of readers – to hit them with a bang. It is employed to inspire, encourage, and motivate the audience. Epizeuxis examples are found in literary writings as well as political speeches. As a literary device, it furnishes freshness to the texts, and gives artistic effect to a piece. Apart from adding rhythm to the texts, epizeuxis makes the reading of the literary text pleasurable and memorable. Also, it helps in drawing the focus to a particular thought, idea, or emotion through repetition.

Tautology

Tautology is the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times.

The word tautology is derived from the Greek word tauto, meaning “the same,” and logos, meaning “a word or an idea.” A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within a phrase, paragraph, or sentence to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information.

Tautologies are very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from other languages. Given the fact that, during its evolution, the English language has been greatly influenced by several other languages – including Germanic and Latin – it is not uncommon to find several exotic tautologies. This is how tautologies can often be found in English poetry and prose.

Types of Tautology

There are several types of tautology that are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions, depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories include:

· Repetitive words used due to inadequacies in the language

· Intentional ambiguities

· Derision

· Poetic device

· Psychological significance

· Speech by inept speaker or narrator

Examples of Tautology in Literature

Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say repetition uses the same words, while tautology uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition – not of words, but of ideas. Others say there is no clear distinction between the two, that tautology includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of Tautology.

Example № 1:

“Your acting is completely devoid of emotion.”

Devoid is defined as “completely empty.” Thus, completely devoid is an example of tautology.

Example № 2:

“Repeat that again,” and “reiterate again.”

To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say it again.

Example № 3: Shout It Out Loud! (By Kiss)

“Shout it, shout it, shout it out loud!”

When a person shouts, it is always aloud.

Example № 4: (By Yogi Berra)

“This is like deja vu all over again” (Yogi Berra)

The term déjà vu means to have a feeling of having previously done or experienced something, or to be doing it all over again. “Déjà vu all over again” is an example of tautology.

In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it.

Polonious: “What do you read, my lord?”
Hamlet: “Words, words, words.”

Here Hamlet has used words in order to show that he is lost in words that Polonius is famous in using.

Function of Tautology

The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however, writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious and redundant phrases.

Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea, or to draw their readers’ attention to a certain aspect of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken as a specific rhetorical device.

Chain repetition – is a kind of repetition based on the use of several following each other anadiploses. Structurally it can be preented in the following way: …a.a…b.b…c.c…d.d…e.e…f.f…g.g…

He was ready to sacrifice everything, everything to save his life, life that meant nothing for his enemy, enemy that destroyed all his being…

Enumeration – is a rhetorical device used for listing details, or a process of mentioning words or phrases step by step actualized through homogeneous syntactical forms.

In fact, it is a type of amplification or division in which a subject is further distributed into components or parts. Writers use enumeration to elucidate a topic, to make it understandable for the readers. It also helps avoid ambiguity in the minds of the readers.

Examples of Enumeration in Literature

Example #1: I Have a Dream (by Martin Luther King)

…we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics…

Function

By using enumeration, writers lay emphasis on certain ideas to elaborate them further. In fact, enumeration easily creates an impression on the minds of the readers. The details and listing make it easy for them to convey the real message they want to impart. However, if there is no use of enumeration in a text, it might become difficult for the reader to get the true meanings of ideas.

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means “unconnected.” It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form. It was first used in Greek and Latin literature.

Types of Asyndeton

Asyndeton examples may be classified into two types:

1. Used between words and phrases within a sentence
For example: “Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?” (Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1, by William Shakespeare)

2. Used between sentences or clauses
For example: “Without looking, without making a sound, without talking”
(Oedipus at Colonus, by Sophecles)

Difference Between Syndeton and Asyndeton

Syndeton and asyndeton are opposite to one another. Syndeton includes the addition of multiple conjunctions, such as in this example: “He eats and sleeps and drinks.” On the other hand, asyndeton is the elimination, or leaving out, of conjunctions, such as in this example: “He eats, sleeps, drinks.”

Each creates a completely different effect. Syndeton slows down the rhythm of speech, and makes it moderate, whereas asyndeton speeds up the rhythm of the speech.

Examples of Asyndeton in Literature

Example № 1: Othello (By William Shakespeare)

IAGO
“Call up her father. Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight,
Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen,
And, though he in a fertile climate dwell…”

In this excerpt, Shakespeare has eliminated conjunctions deliberately. There is a shortage of the conjunctions and, for, or, and but, which are required to join the sentences. Due to this, the words have been emphasized, and feelings of anger and jealousy are articulated explicitly.

Example № 2: Rhetoric (By Aristotle)

“This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely…”

The word “and” is not featured in the given lines, which could have functioned as a conjunction here. Aristotle believed that asyndeton could be effective if used in the ending of the texts. Here he himself employed this device.

Example № 3: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (By James Joyce)

“Consciousness of place came ebbing back to him slowly over a vast tract of time unlit, unfelt, unlived…”

Joyce has also used this device, omitting the conjunctions in order to give rhythm and pace to the text. Here, we can see the elimination of conjunctions, which could have joined the words unlit, unfelt, and unlived. This creates a frantic and hurried effect.

Function of Asyndeton

Asyndeton helps in speeding up the rhythm of words. Mostly this technique is employed in speech but can be used in written works too. It helps in attracting readers to collaborate with the writers, since it suggests that words, phrases, and sentences are incomplete, and the readers would have to do some work to deduce meanings. This version creates immediate impact, and the readers are attuned to what the author is trying to convey.

Asyndeton is often applied intentionally in order to give a unique emphasis to the text, thereby drawing the attention of readers towards a particular idea the author wants to convey.

Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day conversations.

The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound together.” It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like and, or, but, and nor (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive words, phrases, or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are even used where they might have been omitted.

For example, in the sentence, “We have ships and men and money and stores,” the coordinating conjunction “and” is used in quick succession to join words occurring together. In a normal situation, the coordinating conjunction “and” is used to join the last two words of the list, and the rest of the words in the list are separated or joined by a comma.

Examples of Polysyndeton in Literature

Example № 1: The Holy Bible, Joshua 7:24 (By the Prophet Joshua)

“And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.”

This is among the best examples of polysyndeton found in classical or religious text. See how the conjunction “and” has been used in quick succession to join all the items given in this text.

Example № 2: After the Storm (By Ernest Hemingway)

“I said, ‘Who killed him?’ and he said ‘I don’t know who killed him, but he’s dead all right,’ and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights or windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Key and she was right only she was full of water.”

Hemingway has used “and” as a polysyndeton in this passage taken from “After the Storm.” Using this literary device, Hemmingway is able to make his readers feel the anxiety that his character is feeling.

Function of Polysyndeton

Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases, and clauses, bringing continuity to a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device that brings rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.

Break-in-the-narrative /Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis is derived from a Greek word that means “becoming silent.” It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly, and leaves the statement incomplete to create some rhetorical effect. It is as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind, due to being overcome by passion, excitement, or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished, so that the reader can determine his own meanings.

Types of Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis examples may be classified according to the following types:

· Emotive aposiopesis – This type of aposiopesis is used in conditions of conflict between emotional outbursts of a speaker, and an environment that does not react. Usually, the writer or speaker pauses in the middle of a sentence.

· Calculated aposiopesis – This type of aposiopesis is based on the conflict of missing thought and its opposing force that rejects the substance of that thought. Hence, the idea is removed that is explicitly expressed afterwards.

· Audience-respecting aposiopesis – It is based on the removal of thoughts which are unpleasant to the readers, or offensive to the audience.

· Transitio-aposiopesis – It removes the ideas from the end part of a speech in order to immediately get the audience interested in the subsequent section.

· Emphatic aposiopesis – It avoids the use of full utterance, to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible.

Examples of Aposiopesis in Literature

Example № 1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)

King Lear:

“I will have revenges on you both
That all the world shall – I will do such things –
What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be
The terrors of the earth!”

Shakespeare has used this technique wonderfully to show moods of his characters. Here, it is employed when King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment, but he breaks down and burst into tears.

Example № 2 Henry IV (By William Shakespeare)

Hotspur:
“O, I could prophesy, But that the earthy and cold hand of death
Lies on my tongue. No, Percy, thou art dust,
And food for —

Shakespeare has been famous for using emotional pauses, or moments of sudden silence in soliloquies. The unfinished thought in this extract is shown with a long dash (—). This is a pivotal moment in the play where a character pauses abruptly.

Example № 3: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (By Mark Twain)

‘Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll –’

Example № 4: Julius Caesar (By William Shakespeare)

And I must pause till it come back to me…”

Again, Shakespeare uses aposiopesis in the soliloquy spoken by Antony at Caesar’s funeral ceremony. Anthony is making an emotional speech; hence, he is unable to finish his thought. This gives a perfect dramatic impact.

Technically aposiopesis is achieved with the help of dashes and dots, but there are some cast iron structures where full stops are used.

It depends.

Good intentions but.

Function of Aposiopesis

The purpose of using aposiopesis is to create dramatic or comic effect. The writers or speakers use it whenever they want to express ideas that are too overwhelming to finish. Several playwrights use this technique to make dialogues seem sincere and realistic. But the most effective use of aposiopesis is seen when readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts that the writer has left unfinished.

Parcelation

Parcelation is a deliberate split of one single sentence into two (or more) parts, separated by a full stop or its equivalent. Parcelling is stylistic device based on the transposition of the meaning of grammatical means of connection between parts of a sentence. Both parts of the sentence remain semantically and logically connected. But being structurally independent, they acquire greater communicative value and impart expressiveness to the whole utterance:

They stood around him. Talking (D. White).

With that parhaps in mind, he broke away briefly, and ran into the planting shop. And returned with a rope, or coil of little cord (D. White).

The stylistic function of parcelation is similar to the function of detachment: it reflects the atmosphere of unofficial communication and spontaneous character of speech, the speaker’s inner state of mind, it makes the information more concrete and detailed. But parceling and detachment should not be confused. In the case of parceling the word order is not changed, while in detachment the secondary sentence member is isolated and often placed at the end of the sentence, which influence the word order.

For example, the sentence They would appear with soup. Thin and watery is detachment. The separated part Thin and watery is separated attribute placed after the noun soup it describes.

The sentence He passed two or three places with telephones, and although he hesitated before each one, he did not go in. Because there was no one in the whole city he wanted to see that night (I. Show) is parcelation.

Attachment

The neat stylistic device based on a peculiar type of connection of sentence parts or sentences in a text is attachment or gap-sentence link . In the case of attachment this connection is not immediately apparent and it requires a certain mental effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, in other words, to bridge the semantic gap. Here is an example:

Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per cent (T. Capote).

In this sentence the second part, which is hooked on to the first by the conjunction and, seems to be a kind of afterthought deliberately brought by the author into the foregrounded opening position.

Attachment creates a semantic gap wider or narrower as the case may be. Sometimes the gap is so wide that it requires a deep supralinear semantic analysis to get at the implied meaning. While maintaining the unity of the utterance syntactically the author leaves the interpretation of the link between the two sentences to the mind of the reader:

The Forsytes were resentful of something, not individually, but as a family, this resentment expressed itself in an added perfection of raiment, an exuberance of family cordiality, an exaggeration of family importance, and—the sniff (J. Galsworthy).

She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy (J. Galsworthy).

Detachment is a syntactical SD, a figure of speech used by writers to make the reader pay special attention to some parts of the sentence which are placed in such a position that formally they seem independent of the words they refer to, but their semantic connection with such words is clearly perceived by the reader. Detached parts of the sentence may be different in length - from a single word to an extended group of words.

E.g. Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the poplars.(G.) The italicized phrase in bold type seems to be isolated, but still the connection with the primary members of the sentence is clearly perceived, so gold behind the poplars may be interpreted as a simile or a metaphor.

The stylistic function of detachment lies in emphasizing the meaning of the detached part, attaching special significance to it.

E.g. She was lovely: all of her - delightful. (Dr.) In this sentence the punctuation mark plays an important role. The dash standing before the word makes it conspicuous and, being isolated, it becomes the culminating point of the climax - lovely... - delightful, i.e. the peak of the whole utterance. The phrase all of her is also isolated. The general impression, suggested by the implied intonation, is a strong feeling of admiration.

Detachment is often visualized wit the help of punctuation marks: dashes, colons, semicolons, commas. Thus the fragment put in isolated position becomes foregrounded.

There may be various types of detached construction:

An attribute or adverbial modifier is placed not in the immediate proximity to its referent but in some other position: He rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes.

A nominal phrase may serve as a detached element: And he walked slowly past again, along the river – an evening of clear, quiet beauty, all harmony and comfort, except within his heart. (John Galsworthy)

This stylistic device is akin to inversion because their functions are almost the same. But detached constructions produce a much stronger effect.

Parenthetic sentences. This stylistic device is a variant of the detached construction. These are syntactical structures which interrupt the main sentence without affecting it and create various stylistic effects. They are marked phonetically and are relatively independent of the sentence they are inserted in. The syntactic isolation is shown in writing by graphical means - brackets, dashes or commas.

Here are the main functions of parenthetic sentences:

1. They specify and characterize the details of the statement, give it a lively and palpable colouring, e.g. And sometimes with the sensation a cat must feel when it purrs, he would become conscious that Megan's eyes -those dew-gray eyes - were fixed on him with a sort of lingering soft look. (G.)

2. They may intensify the fact contained in a message, e.g. They had not seen - no one could see - her distress, not even her grandfather. (J.G.)

3. They may have an evaluative meaning, e.g. That phrase represented, I think, his deepest research into the meaning of life. (Gr.Gr.)

4. They may convey some additional information specifying the utterance, e.g. By 4 o 'clock the article was finished and Hadley - plump, timidly smiling, running as usual about his business - came in with the photographs that were to go with it. (A.Cr.)

Parenthetic sentences belong to a different plane, conveying the inner speech of the character. So the most important stylistic function of this device is to create two parallel layers of narration - one of them belonging to the writer, the other to the literary character who is also the author of the story.

Parallel constructions. This is the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences or clauses which are identical or similar in their structure.

Parallel constructions may be partial or complete.

Partial parallelism is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses.

e.g. If we are Frenchmen we adore our mother; if Englishmen, we love dogs and virtue. (J.J.)

Complete parallelism maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences.

e.g. / told him you were sick, I told him you were asleep. (W.Sh.)

Parallelism is often combined with other stylistic devices and is used to back them up, such as lexical repetition, alliteration, antithesis. It is widely used in the belles-lettres style, in publicistic and scientific prose with different functions.

1. In emotive prose the main function is to intensify the communicative and expressive significance of the utterance.

e.g. It was not a day to be without a job or cigarettes or lunch. It was not a day in which he had no interest in it. (I.Shaw)

2. Syntactic parallelism may unite semantically different elements into complex syntactic unities, creating a true-to-life description of the event, e.g. Shelling the peas, smelling the onions cooking, watching the deft movements of her perfectly manicured hands, hearing the gay murmur of her voice, he felt the depression of the last weeks lift. (D.C.)

3. In oratory and publicistic style the main function of parallel constructions is to stress the main idea of the utterance, to convince the reader or the listener, to cause him to accept the author's point of view.

e.g. But there is one way in this country in which all men are created equal - there is one human institution that makes a pauper the equal of a Rockefeller... (H. Lee). In the attorney's speech parallelism creates the effect of gravity and authority.

4. When used in scientific prose parallelism elucidates the scientific phenomenon and helps to impose upon the reader the author's point of view.

e.g. In some cases, a chronological or logical sequence can in English be changed in presentational order (e.g. told backwards); when this is done, the referential structure of the tale is unaffected, but the grammatical structure of the telling is radically altered. Grammatical order is necessarily linear, but referential order is at least potentially simultaneous. (K.Pk.)

Parallelism strongly effects a rhythmical organization of an utterance and gives it a special emphasis.

Parallelism may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the mega-structures (in the supraphrasal units and paragraphs). Parallel constructions are often bound up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and polysyndeton. Parallel constructions are most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices.

Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical "flesh".

True enough, parallel constructions almost always include some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence.

A variety of parallelism is called chiasmus. Here the repeated parts of the sentence come in the reversed order. Its main function is to attach a new additional content to the utterance, fixing the addressee's attention on the fact, thus making it prominent, e.g. A court is only as sound as its jury, and the jury is only as sound as the men who make it up. (H.Lee)

Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect.

Let us try to understand chiasmus with the help of an example:

“Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.”

Notice that the second half of this sentence is an inverted form of the first half, both grammatically and logically. In the simplest sense, the term chiasmus applies to almost all “criss-cross” structures, and this is a concept that is common these days. In its strict classical sense, however, the function of chiasmus is to reverse grammatical structure or ideas of sentences, given that the same words and phrases are not repeated.

The Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole

Chiasmus is different from antimetabole. An antimetabole is the repetition of words in consecutive clauses, but in an inverted or transposed order. For example:

“You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to forget.”

Antimetabole examples resemble chiasmus, as they are marked by the inversion of structure. In examples of chiasmus, however, the words and phrases are not repeated. Generally, chiasmus and antimetabole are regarded by many critics as similar tools of rhetoric.

Examples of Chiasmus from Greek Sages

The use of chiasmus as a rhetorical device dates back to the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Its traces have been found in the ancient texts of Sanskrit, and also in ancient Chinese writings. Greeks, however, developed an unmatched inclination for this device, and made it an essential part of the art of oration.

Example № 1: Aeschylus, 5th Century B.C.

“It is not the oath that makes us believe the man,
but the man the oath.”

Example «2: Bias, 6th Century B.C.

“Love as if you would one day hate,
and hate as if you would one day love.”

Example № 3: Socrates, 5th Century B.C.

“Bad men live that they may eat and drink,
whereas good men eat and drink that they may live.”

Examples of Chiasmus from Literature

Do I Love You Because You’re Beautiful? (By Oscar Hammerstein)

“Do I love you because you’re beautiful?
Or are you beautiful because I love you?”

Example № 4: Quote (By Thomas Szaz)

“When religion was strong and science weak, men
mistook magic for medicine;
Now, when science is strong and religion weak, men
mistake medicine for magic.”

There are two types of chiasmus: syntactical (the previous ex) and lexical:

In the days of old men made the manners, manners now made men.

His jokes were sermons and his sermons (were) jokes. (Byron) Such a witty arrangement of words gives an utterance epigrammatic character.

Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to break the monotony of parallel constructions. Chiasmus always brings some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis to the sentence.

Function of Chiasmus

As the above discussion reveals, chiasmus is a unique rhetorical device that is employed by writers to create a special artistic effect, in order to lay emphasis on what they want to communicate.

Climax

Climax, a Greek term meaning “ladder,” is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. It is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a “crisis.” It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play.

Examples of Climax in Literature

Let us analyze a few climax examples in literature:

Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

In William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio:

“And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now!
Now, Tybalt, take the ‘villain’ back again
That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio’s soul
Is but a little way above our heads …”

As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says:

“O! I am Fortune’s Fool!”

He realizes that he has killed his wife’s cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax, as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because, after this act, all the prior conflicts start to be resolved, and mysteries unfold themselves, thus moving the story toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.

Climax as a Stylistic Device

As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases, and clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. The following are examples of climax as a stylistic device:

Better to borrow, better to beg, better to die.

A gradual increase of significance may be maintained in 3 ways: logical, emotional, quantitative.

Logical gradation is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concept embodied in them: There are drinkers, there are drunkens, there are alcoholics but these are only steps down the ladder.

Emotional gradation is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning: I’ll smash you, I’ll crumble you, I’ll powder you, go to the hell, devil!

Quantitative climax is based on the evident increase in the volume of the correspondent concepts: They looked at hundreds of houses, they climbed thousands of stairs, they inspected innumerable kitchens. (Maugham)

Function of Climax

A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the previously rising action to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, it is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being pre-employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.

The stylistic function of gradation is to show the relative importance of things as seen by the author especially in emotional climax or to impress on the reader the significance of the things or to depict phenomena dynamically.

Anticlimax is the reverse of climax. The ideas expressed may be arranged in ascending order of significance or they may be poetic elevated but final one which the reader expects to be the culminating one is trifling or farcical.

The sudden reversal usually bring force a humorous or ironic effects: In moments of utter crises my nerves act in a most extraordinary way. I size up the situation in a flash, set my teeth, contract my mussels, take a firm grip of myself and without a tremor always do the wrong thing.

Types of Anti-Climax

There are two types of anti-climax. The first is used in narrations, such as the anti-climax about the overall plot of the story. The second one is a figure of speech, which might occur anywhere in the story.

Examples of Anti-Climax in Literature

In literature, there are lots of examples of anti-climax, whether narrative or as a figure of speech. Let us consider a few of them:

She was unconsolable – for an afternoon

Function of Anti-Climax

Generally ludicrous or comic effect is produced by anti-climax. When employed intentionally, it devalues the subject. Therefore, it is frequently used for satirical and humorous composition in literature and movies. However, sometimes it is used unintentionally – then it is known as “bathos.”

A rhetorical question is a figure of speech where the question is asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on some point being discussed, when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident, and used for style as an impressive persuasive device.

Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already, or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience’s attention.

Common Rhetorical Question Examples

Rhetorical questions, though almost needless or meaningless, seem a basic need of daily language. Some common examples of rhetorical questions from daily life are as follows:

· “Who knows?”

· “Are you stupid?”

· “Did you hear me?”

· “Ok?”

· “Why not?”

Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs immediately after a comment made, and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point more prominent. Some rhetorical question examples are as follows. Keep in mind that they are also called “tag questions” if used in everyday conversation.

· “It’s too hot today, isn’t it?“

· “The actors played the roles well, didn’t they?“

Examples of Rhetorical Question in Literature

Rhetorical questions in literature are as important as they are in daily language, or perhaps even more so. The reason is the significant change a rhetorical question can bring about. The absence or presence of a rhetorical question in some of the most famous lines in literature would change the impact altogether. Some examples of rhetorical questions in literature show that writers sometimes ask questions, and then goes on to answer them to produce a desired effect.

To be or not to be?

In this excerpt, Shelley achieves the desired effect by asking a rhetorical question, rather than making a statement. The answer to this question is not sought; rather, an effect is successfully created giving a fine finishing touch.

Example #4: The Solitary Reaper (By William Wordsworth)

“Will no one tell me what she sings?”

Notice, an answer is not expected to this question. The poet prefers a rhetorical question to a plain statement to emphasize his feelings of pleasant surprise. Thus, the poem’s meaning is enhanced by the use of a rhetorical question.

Function of Rhetorical Question

Writers employ rhetorical questions for rhetorical effects, and we cannot easily quantify the impact rendered by a rhetorical question. The idea becomes all the more powerful, and our interest is aroused to continue to read and enjoy the technical and aesthetic beauty that a rhetorical question generates. Moreover, it is a requirement in persuasive speeches.

Suspense (retardation) Suspense (retardation) is a deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought. A suspense is achieved by a repeated occurrence of phrases or clauses expressing conditions, supposition, time and the like all of which hold back the conclusion of the utterance:

Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw.

The main purpose of this device is to prepare the reader for the only logical conclusion of the utterance. It must be noted that suspense due to its partly psychological nature since it arouses a feeling of expectation is framed in one sentence and there mustn’t be any break in the intonation pattern. Separate sentences would violate the principle of constant emotional tension which is characteristic if suspense.

Ellipsis is a syntactical SD, a figure of speech based on the principle of a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. It is characteristic of oral speech and is not considered a stylistic device in oral communication. But it assumes a new quality in the written language. It becomes a stylistic device because in this case it supplies additional information. Consider the following example: "I'll go, Doll! I'll go!" This from Bead, large eyes larger than usual behind the horn-rimmed glasses. (J.)

The reader feels very acutely the absence of the predicate here and realizes that it is not accidental. In this way the writer shows us the excitement and eagerness of the character. If used in the direct speech of a character, its function is to achieve the authenticity and plausibility of fictitious dialogue.

The extensive use of ellipsis results in the so-called telegraphic style, in which connective elements and redundant words are left out. This can be illustrated by the gradual clipping of the warning phrase in the drivers' directions. At first it was used in the following form: "Please drive slowly", then the first word was left out, and after that the second, so now the warning is used in the form "Slowly". Telegraphic style is sometimes observed in the speech of literary characters, where it produces the impression of hurriedness, abruptness, unexpectedness.

Ellipsis leads to the emergence of the so-called apokoinu construction in which the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective creates a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses. E.g. There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh. A.)

I bring him news will raise his drooping spirits. (Jespersen)

It is used in oral speech mostly, but in emotive prose the construction produces the general impression of clumsiness of speech and is used as a means of speech characteristics in dialogue, in reported speech and in entrusted narrative when the author entrusts the telling of the story to an imaginary narrator who is either an observer or a participant of the events described.

syntactical and lexico-syntactical SDs