GLOSSARY стилистика
GLOSSARY
Abstract and concrete are ways of describing important qualities of language. Abstract words are not associated with real, material objects
that are related directly to the five senses. Such words as "love," "wisdom,"
"patriotism," and "power" are abstract because they refer to ideas rather than to things.
Concrete language, on the other hand,
names things that can be perceived by the five senses. Words like "table," "smoke,"
"lemon," and "halfback" are concrete.
Alliteration
(Consonance) is the repetition of consonant sounds, but not
vowels, as in assonance. It is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a
melodic effect to the utterance.
Allusion is a reference to some literary, biographical,
or historical event.
Analogy is a form of figurative comparison that uses a clear
illustration to explain a difficult idea or function. It is unlike a formal comparison in that its subjects of comparison
are from different categories or
areas.
Antonomasiais the
substitution of any epithet or phrase with a proper name.It is the interplay
between the logical and nominal meanings of a word.
Antonym is a word that is opposite in meaning to that of
another word: "hot"
is an antonym of "cold"; "fat" is an antonym of "thin"; "large" is an
antonym of "small."
Apokoinu
constructionpresents a blend
of two clauses into one, which is achieved at the expense of the omission of
the connecting word and the
double syntactical function acquired by tie unit occupying the linking position between both form clauses.
Aposiopesis is a rhetorical ellipsis used to indicate strong emotions paralyzing the character's
speech or his deliberate stop in the
utterance to conceal its meaning.
Argumentation is a form of writing in which you offer reasons in favor of or against something.
Argumentation is a form of writing in which you offer reasons in favor of or against something.
Assonance is the
repetition of vowel sounds
in non-rhyming words as in, "some ship in distress that cannot live."
The i's in those words have same vowel sounds but they do not have to rhyme. It
doesn't have to rhyme and usually only the vowels rhyme.
Causal analysis
is a form of writing
that examines causes and effects of events or conditions
as they relate to a specific subject.
Chaotic/heterogeneous enumeration
is the deliberate piling in a homogeneous syntactical line words so different
semantically that they produce a humorous effect or express the idea of chaos.
Characterization
is the description of
people. As a particular type of description in an essay,
characterization attempts to capture as vividly as possible the features,
qualities, traits, speech, and actions of
individuals.
Chiasmus is reversed
parallelism in which the repeated syntactical construction is reversed,
compared to preceding sentence or clause. It can be the word order that is
reversed, or the sequence of the main and subordinate clauses, or the form and
the meaning of the statement.
Chronological
order is the arrangement
of events in the order that they happened. One might use chronological order to
trace the history of the Vietnam War, to explain a scientific process, or to
present the biography of a close relative or friend. When you order an essay
by chronology, you are moving from one step to the next in time.
Classification is a pattern of writing where the author divides
a subject into categories
and then groups elements in each of those categories according to their
relationships to each other.
Clichés are expressions that were once fresh and vivid,
but have become tired and worn
from overuse. "I'm so hungry that I could eat a horse" is a typical cliché. People use
clichés in conversation, but
writers should generally avoid them.
Coherence is a quality in effective writing that results
from the careful ordering of each
sentence in a paragraph, and each paragraph in the essay. If an essay is coherent, each part will
grow naturally and logically
from those parts that come before it. Coherence depends on the writer's ability to organize materials in
a logical way, and to order
segments so that the reader is carried along easily from start to finish. The main devices used in
achieving coherence are transitions,
which help to connect one thought with another.
Comparison/contrast
is a pattern of
writing that treats similarities
and differences between two subjects.
Composition is a term used for any piece of writing that
reveals a careful plan.
Connotation/denotation
are terms specifying
the way a word has meaning.
Connotation refers to the "shades of meaning" that a word might have because of various emotional
associations it calls up
for writers and readers alike. Words like "American," "physician,"
"mother," "pig," and "San Francisco" have strong
connotative overtones to them. With denotation, however, we are concerned not with the suggestive meaning of a
word but with its exact, literal
meaning. Denotation refers to the "dictionary definition" of a word – its exact meaning.
Context clues are hints provided about the meaning of a word
by another word or words,
or by the sentence or sentences coming before or after it. Thus in the sentence, "Mr.
Rome, a true raconteur, told a story that thrilled the guests," we
should be able to guess at the
meaning of the italicized word by the context clues coming
both before and after it. (A "raconteur" is a person who tells good
stories.)
Description is a type of writing that uses details of sight,
color, sound, smell, and
touch to create a word picture and to explain or illustrate an idea.
Dialogue is the exact duplication in writing of
something people say to each other. Dialogue is the reproduction of speech or
conversation; it can add concreteness and vividness to an essay, and can also help to reveal character.
Division is that aspect of classification where the writer divides some large subject
into categories. For example, one might divide "fish" into salt water
and fresh water fish; or "sports" into team and individual sports.
Emphasis suggests the placement of the most important
ideas in key positions in the essay. Writers can
emphasize ideas simply by placing important
ones at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph or essay.
Epithet is a
stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an
attributive word/phrase/sentence.
Euphemism is the use of a word or phrase simply because
it seems less distasteful or less offensive than another word. For instance, "mortician" is a euphemism for
"undertaker"; "sanitation worker" for "garbage collector."
Euphony is the sound
arrangement of the utterance which intensifies its logical meaning. The
phonetic aspect of the word corresponds to the idea expressed. If the message
is pleasant & mild, the mild & pleasant sounds increase the impression,
e.g. She is like a beautiful exotic flower that must be sheltered from
bitter winds.
Fable is a narrative with a moral. The story from
which the writer draws the moral can be either true or imaginary. It is important that a writer clearly presents the moral to be derived from
the narrative.
Gap-Sentence Link is a
peculiar type of connection of sentences that is not immediately apparent but
requires a certain mental effort to bridge a semantic gap.
General and
specific words are necessary
in writing, although it is wise to
keep your vocabulary as specific as possible. General words refer to broad categories and groups, while
specific words capture with more force and clarity the nature of a term. The
distinction between general and specific language is always a matter of degree. "A woman walked down the street"
is more general than "Mrs.
Walker walked down Fifth Avenue," while "Mrs. Webster, elegantly dressed in a muslin suit,
strolled down Fifth Avenue" is more specific than the first two examples.
Gradation/climax is an arrangement of words in a
sentence or sentences in a paragraph which
secures a gradual increase in logical significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance.
Hyperbole/exaggeration/overstatement
is a figure of speech in which
statements are obviously exaggerated
or extravagant. It may be used due to strong feelings or is used to create a strong
impression and is not meant to be taken literally.
Illustration is the use of several examples to support our
idea.
Introductions are the beginning or openings of literary works.
Introductions should perform a
number of functions. They alert the reader to the subject, set the limits of the essay, and indicate what the thesis (or main idea) will be. They arouse
the reader's interest in
the subject, so that the reader will want to continue reading.
There are many techniques that can be used to develop introductions. It can be a single sentence or a much longer
paragraph, but it must accomplish its
purpose – to introduce readers to the subject, and to engage them so that they
want to explore the essay further.
Irony is the use of language to suggest the opposite of
what is stated. Writers use irony to reveal
unpleasant or troublesome realities that exist in life, or to poke fun at
human weaknesses and foolish attitudes.
Jargon is the use of special words associated with a
specific area of knowledge or a
specific profession. It is similar to "shop talk" that members of a certain trade might know, but
not necessarily people outside it.
Litotes is a negative
construction that caries no negative meaning.
Metaphor is a type of figurative language in which an
item from one category is compared
briefly and imaginatively with an item from another area. Writers create
metaphors to assign meaning to a word
in an original way.
Metonymy is a SDbased
on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings,
where a part of a notion substitutes the notion itself, e.g. the word crown
may stand for king or queen.
Metre is the type
of poetic rhythm of the line.
Narration is telling a story in order to illustrate an
important idea.
Objective/subjective
writing refers to
the attitude that writers take toward
their subject. When writers are objective, they try not to report their own personal feelings about their
subject. They attempt to
control, if not eliminate, their own attitude toward the topic.
Onomatopoeais imitation
of sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines,
tools, etc.), by people (singing, laughter), by animals.
Order is the manner in which you arrange information
or materials in an essay. The
most common ordering techniques are chronological order (involving time sequence); spatial order (involving
the arrangement of descriptive
details); process order (involving a step-by-step
approach to an activity); deductive order (in which you offer a thesis and then the evidence to
support it); and inductive order (in which you present
evidence first and build toward the thesis).
Some rhetorical patterns such as comparison and contrast, classification, and argumentation require
other ordering techniques.
Oxymoron is a
combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite
in sense. There is no true word-combination, but only the juxtaposition of two
non-combinative words, e.g. sweet sorrow, horribly beautiful, a deafening
silence.
Paradox is a statement that seems to be
contradictory but actually contains an element of truth. Writers use it in
order to call attention to their subject.
Parallelism is a variety of sentence structure in which
there is "balance"
or coordination in the presentation of elements. "I came, I saw, I conquered" is a good example of parallelism, presenting bothpronouns
and verbs in a coordinated manner. Parallelism can also bee applied to several sentences and to
entire paragraphs. It can be an
effective way to emphasize ideas.
Paronyms are words
similar though not identical in sound, but different in meaning, e.g. raven,
never.
Periphrasis/circumlocution
is a figure of speech where the meaning of a word or
phrase is indirectly expressed through several or many words.
Personification
is giving an object,
thing, or idea lifelike or human qualities.
Like all forms of figurative writing, personification adds freshness to description, and makes ideas vivid
by setting up striking comparisons.
Point of view is the angle from which a writer tells a story. Many
personal or informal essays take the first-person (or "I") point ofview. The first-person "I" point of view is natural and fitting for essays when the writer wants to speak in a familiar and intimate way to the reader. On the other hand, the third-person point of view ("he," "she," "it," "they") distances the reader somewhat from the writer. The third-person point of view is useful where writers are not talking exclusively about themselves, but about other people, things, and events. Occasionally, the second-person ("you") point of view will appear in texts, notably involving process analysis where the writer directs the reader to do something. Other point-of-view combinations are possible when a writer wants to achieve a special effect.
personal or informal essays take the first-person (or "I") point ofview. The first-person "I" point of view is natural and fitting for essays when the writer wants to speak in a familiar and intimate way to the reader. On the other hand, the third-person point of view ("he," "she," "it," "they") distances the reader somewhat from the writer. The third-person point of view is useful where writers are not talking exclusively about themselves, but about other people, things, and events. Occasionally, the second-person ("you") point of view will appear in texts, notably involving process analysis where the writer directs the reader to do something. Other point-of-view combinations are possible when a writer wants to achieve a special effect.
Polysyndeton is a
stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by
using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component
part.
Proposition is the main point in an argumentative essay. It
is like a thesis except that it usually presents an idea that is
debatable or can be disputed.
Pun is a SD based on contrast and
the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It consists of
a deliberate confusion of similar words
or phrases
for rhetorical
effect, whether humorous or serious.
Purpose refers to what a writer hopes to accomplish in
a piece of writing. For example, the purpose may be to
convince the reader to adopt a certain
viewpoint, to explain a process or
to allow the reader to feel a
dominant impression. Purpose helps a writer to determine which expository
technique will dominate the text's form,
as well as what kinds of supporting examples will be used. Purposeandaudienceareoftencloselyrelated.
Rhetorical question is a figure
of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical
effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer.
Rhyme is the repetition
of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words.
Rhythm is a flow,
procedure, characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or
features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different
elements or features.
Sarcasm is a sneering or taunting attitude in writing.
It is designed to hurt by
ridiculing or criticizing. Basically, sarcasm is a heavy-handed form of irony, as when an individual
says.
Satire is the humorous or critical treatment of a
subject in order to expose the
subject's vices, follies, stupidities, and so forth. Satire is a better weapon
than sarcasm in the hands of the writer because satire is used to correct, whereas sarcasm merely hurts.
Simile is a figure of speech in which the subject is
compared to another subject with the help of formal elements (like, as if,
etc.).
Slang is a level of language that uses racy and
colorful expressions associated
more often with speech than with writing. Slang expressions are used when a writer is reproducing dialogue or striving for a special effect.
Stanza/strophe is the
largest unit in verse consisting of two or more verse lines. It is a verse segment composed of a number of
lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout
the poem.
Stylistic
device is a conscious and an intentional intensification of
some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or
expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative
model. A SD is an abstract pattern, a mould into which any pattern can be
poured.
Suspense is a
compositional device which consists in
arranging the less important parts at the beginning, the main idea being
withheld till the end of the sentence.
Synonym is a word that means roughly the same as another
word. In practice, few
words are exactly alike in meaning. Careful writers
use synonyms to vary word choice, without ever moving too far from the shade of
meaning intended.
Theme is the central idea in a text; it is also often
termed the thesis.
Everything in a
written work should support the theme in one way or
another.
Title a short, simple indication of the contents of a text. Titles like "On Keeping a
Notebook," "What to
Listen for in Music," "The Ambivalence of Abortion," and "How to Write a Personal Letter" are the sorts of titles that
convey the central subjects in brief,
effective ways. Others, such as
"Survival," "Night Walker," and "I Became Her
Target" also convey the central idea, but more abstractly.
Tone is the writer's attitude toward his or her
subject or material. A writer's tone may be objective, ironic, comic, nostalgic,
or a reflection of numerous other
attitudes. Toneisthe "voice" thatisgiventothetext
Transition is the linking of one idea to the next in order
to achieve coherence. Transitions are words that connect these ideas. Among the most common techniques to
achieve smooth transition
are: (I) repeating a key word or phrase; (2) using a pronoun to refer back to a key word or
phrase; (3) relying on traditional
connectives like "thus," "for example,"
"moreover," therefore,"
"however," "finally," "likewise,"
"afterwards," and
"in conclusion"; (4) using parallel structure; and (5) creating a
sentence or an entire paragraph that serves as a bridge from one part of the text to the next. Transition is
best achieved when the
writer presents ideas and details carefully and in logical order.
Understatement/Litotes is
the reverse of exaggeration.
Unity is that feature in an essay where all material
relates to a central concept and
contributes to the meaning of the whole. To achieve
a unified effect, the writer must design an introduction and conclusion, maintain a consistent tone and point of view develop middle paragraphs in a coherent
manner, and always stick to the subject; never permitting unimportant elements
lo enter. Thus, unity involves a
successful blending of all elements in the
creation of a sound essay.
Vulgarisms are words that exist below conventional
vocabulary, and which are not
accepted in polite conversation or writing, unless they serve an illustrative purpose.
Zeugmais the use of
a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent
words in the context, literal and transferred.
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